After a short civil war, a new dynasty, called Han (206 B.C.-A.D. 220),emerged with its capital at Chang'an ( ).The new empire retained much of the Qin administrative structure but retreateda bit from centralized rule by establishing vassal principalities in someareas for the sake of political convenience. The Han rulers modified someof the harsher aspects of the previous dynasty; Confucian ideals of government,out of favor during the Qin period, were adopted as the creed of the Hanempire, and Confucian scholars gained prominent status as the core of thecivil service. A civil service examination system also was initiated. Intellectual,literary, and artistic endeavors revived and flourished. The Han periodproduced China's most famous historian, Sima Qian (145-87 B.C.?), whoseShiji (Historical Records) provides a detailed chronicle from the timeof a legendary Xia emperor to that of the Han emperor Wu Di (141-87 B.C.).Technological advances also marked this period. Two of the great Chineseinventions, paper and porcelain, date from Han times.

The Han dynasty, after which the members ofthe ethnic majority in China, the "people of Han," are named, was notablealso for its military prowess. The empire expanded westward as far as therim of the Tarim Basin (in modern Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region), makingpossible relatively secure caravan traffic across Central Asia to Antioch,Baghdad, and Alexandria. The paths of caravan traffic are often calledthe "silk route" because the route was used to export Chinese silk to theRoman Empire. Chinese armies also invaded and annexed parts of northernVietnam and northern Korea toward the end of the second century B.C. Hancontrol of peripheral regions was generally insecure, however. To ensurepeace with non-Chinese local powers, the Han court developed a mutuallybeneficial "tributary system". Non-Chinese states were allowed to remainautonomous in exchange for symbolic acceptance of Han overlordship. Tributaryties were confirmed and strengthened through intermarriages at the rulinglevel and periodic exchanges of gifts and goods.

After 200 years, Han rule was interruptedbriefly (in A.D. 9-24 by Wang Mang, a reformer), and then restored foranother 200 years. The Han rulers, however, were unable to adjust to whatcentralization had wrought: a growing population, increasing wealth andresultant financial difficulties and rivalries, and ever-more complex politicalinstitutions. Riddled with the corruption characteristic of the dynasticcycle, by A.D. 220 the Han empire collapsed.

The period from 206  B.C. to 220 A.D.is  known as the Han Dynasty. Under the Han rulers, science and technologymade remarkable strides; paper, the compass, and the seismograph were invented;and steel was manufactured. The empire expanded into southern China, northernVietnam and parts of Korea, and forged trade routes through Central Asiato India and Persia.

Confucianism was reinterpreted and adoptedas the official state ideology, and a national university was establishedfor the training of Confucian officials. The political unity of the Qinwas preserved, but sanctioned by Confucianism so that Chinese of todaystill look back on this epoch with pride and call themselves "men of Han."Diversity developed within the culture: native and foreign, Confucian andTaoist, courtly and popular.

The Han ruling line was briefly interruptedby the usurpation of a famous reformer, Wang Mang, whose interlude on thethrone from A.D. 9 to 23 in known as the Hsin dynasty. Historians thereforesubdivide the Han period into two parts, Former (or Western) Han (capitalat Ch'ang-an, present day Xi'an) and Later (Eastern) Han (capital at Loyang).

Former Han or Western Han (202 B.C. - A.D.9)

Han Kao-tsu (Liu Pang)  Founder of thedynasty and first commoner to rule China (202 B.C. - 195 B.C.)  Spentmost of the short reign suppressing military challenges of ambitious subordinatesand fighting defensively against a  Turkic-speaking northern peopleknown as the Hsiung-nu.  Policy proposals initiated by officials ratherthan the emperor and policy decisions made by the emperor only after widespread consultation and deliberation among his ministerial advisers.

Laissez-faire policies: blend of pre-Qin feudalismand Qin's autocratic centralism: eastern part of the empire for feudalfiefdom (princedoms and marquisates); western half for central governmentcontrol (commanderies and subordinate districts). The policy lead to populationgrowth, expansion of economy and flourishing of culture.

Emperor Wu (Han Wu-ti, reigned from 141 to87 B.C.)

Centralization of power and defeudalization:stripped the nobility of their status and wealth, and transformed theirnominal fiefs into commanderies and districts.  Campaigned againstthe Hsiung-nu in the north; dispatched the courtier Chang Ch'ien westwardto find anti-Xiong-nu allies.

Expansion of Han territory: westward, fromChinese Turkestan (Xinjiang) into Russian Turkestan, eastward to Korea,southward to Vietnam. Chinese began to learn about Japan through Korea.At the time, Japan was still at the Neolithic stage of development.

Development of a tributary system for neighboringcountries. Ruler's sons sent to Ch'ang-an to be educated (as hostage),Chinese princesses or noblewomen given in marriages to alien rulers. State economic management: stricter measures against the merchant class,cannot own land taxes imposed on merchant inventories  state controland regulation of food prices and supplies state monopoly in salt, iron,liquor, and coinage.  The beginnings of bureaucracy: rudimentary nationaluniversity to train future officials. Students entered the university through recommendation by the local officials.

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